One of the beauties of Druidry, and also of Neo-Paganism in general, is that it is largely a “blank slate” that practitioners can make of what they wish. This is also its greatest weakness. Because there is no central authority, there is no consistent guidance on matters of ethics. Because it is left to the individual to figure out, it is often mistakenly believed that “what is right and wrong for one person may not be what is right and wrong for another.” Each person gets to choose what is moral, and all choices are often seen as equally valid.This is sometimes inaccurately referred to as “moral relativism.” As critics of Neo-Paganism are quick to point out, if morality is truly this relative, then why not burn witches if doing so is “right for me?” True moral relativism, as a philosophical theory, says that morals are relative to a culture or society, not to an individual. This individualistic “moral relativism,” then, is not philosophically sound. If morality exists at all, it is universal at least to a culture. But I would argue against any kind of relativism and suggest that morality truly is universal. We would not have much of a leg to stand on if morality were dictated by a culture since, being minorities in our cultures, many of our activities would have to be considered immoral inasmuch as they diverge from the majority’s sense of morality.

Therefore, it may be in our interest to consider morality a universal that transcends time and culture. Not only does it allow us to break free from the often stifling local mores of the predominant culture to the extent they diverge from “universal” morality, it gives us a stronger reason to explore the past and seek to understand what our ancestors thought about morality and virtue.

Because there is no central authority to hand down proclamations concerning morality, we must find our universal principals from other sources - the same ones the ancients did. The three pillars of Pagan morality are reason, experience, and intuition. Any rule or system of morality must be supported by all three. They must withstand analytical scrutiny, comport to our every-day experience, and ring true in our hearts.

Morals vs. Virtues

Ethics represent the bottom-line rules of expected behavior. These define what “thou shalt not” inasmuch as that phrase can apply to pagans. In other words, ethics lay out the minimum standard that we should all be held accountable to. Morals are simply ethics with religious overtones. When ethics come from a particular religious conviction, they tend to be called “morals.” In this work, I use the words “ethics” and “morals” interchangeably.

Ancient pagans didn’t spend too much time considering ethics as such. They were more focused on virtues, which represent the ideals one should aspire to. We should follow our ancestors and try to determine what are the best actions to take, rather than those that are minimally acceptable. Therefore, I will spend little time discussing ethics, and focus instead on the Pagan Virtues. When one pursues the Virtues, morality takes care of itself. For those who are not satisfied with this abrupt dismissal of morality in favor of virtue, and feel they need a set of rules defining the minimal acceptable behavior they should be expected to comport to, I suggest this: Don’t break the law.

Developing a Living Faith

The unexamined life is not worth living. - Socrates

By “faith,” I mean simply a system of belief. That would include our moral philosophy, our point of view, our spirituality, even our political philosophy. Faith and belief should be constantly questioned and subject to change. Here, one can borrow some tips from the scientific method. This seems appropriate, considering that science itself was largely an invention of ancient pagans, and they frequently applied scientific techniques to questions of faith.

Our faith ought to be more akin to scientific hypothesis than dogmatic certainty. With a hypothesis, a good scientist both assumes it is true and, at the same time, tries to prove it isn’t. Little in science is more valuable than a hypothesis that is dis-proved and successfully shooting down his own hypothesis may leave a scientist to shouts of glee.

So, live life as if your beliefs are true, but also try to prove to yourself at every opportunity that they are true by seeing if you can prove they are not. If you succeed, then there is cause for celebration. You have a better belief system because the new concept is either incorporated into your old one or replaces one that was weaker. If you fail, then stick with what you have because it is the best you can find. By being constantly questioned faith constantly grows, deepens, matures, and adapts. It is like a living organism. It is a living faith. When we accept blindly, when we refuse to question, our faith is a dead thing.

Moderation

“O Cormac grandson of Conn, what is good for me?” asked Cairbre.
“Not hard.” Said Cormac “Be no too wise … too foolish … too conceited … too diffident … too haughty … too humble … too talkative … too silent … too harsh … too feeble.” “If you are too wise, they expect much … too foolish, you will be deceived … too conceited, you will be vexing … too humble, you will be without honor … too talkative, you will not be heard … too silent, you will not be regarded … too harsh, you will be broken … too feeble, you will be crushed.”- “Teagasc an Riogh” (Instructions for a King)

To be truly happy, according to Aristotle, requires that we live a full and balanced life guided by moderation in all things. To him, all virtues were a “golden mean” between two extremes. While Aristotle is credited with formalizing this notion, it is clearly part of the Celtic understanding of virtue as well, as evidenced by the quoted exchange above.

Many of the virtues might be looked at the way Aristotle did, but some seem to defy such an analysis. They might be means between multiple extremes instead of merely two, for example. Or maybe some are such that seem to defy an extreme by its very nature. Perhaps the balance we should seek is not the mean between various extremes, but an appropriate balance between all of the virtues. In other words, one should not sacrifice one virtue entirely in order to go to the extreme in another. Moderation, then, is the virtue that embraces and guides us in all other virtues.

Justice

Wrong will not rest, nor will ill-deed stand. -Gaelic Proverb

The ancient Celts had a fairly specific understanding of what justice is. To them, justice is about an exchange. Justice is about reciprocity. You pay back what you owe, you keep your promises, you give back what you take. You are fair in your trades with others. When you harm another, you must make compensation. Doing a wrong creates a debt owed to the victim and to society at large. Ancient bards could calculate this debt rather precisely using a complex set of rules. Punishment, then, was in the form of compensation given to the aggrieved. It was not an eye-for-an-eye sort of thing, but rather more akin to our system of civil claims — an attempt to restore to the aggrieved what had been lost.

Vengeance was also considered a virtue. Honor called for justice to be done. “Payment” was to be exacted from those that wronged your clan and failure to exact vengeance was seen as a dishonor to one’s clan. I do not advocate “taking the law into your own hands.” However, what I think we can take from this is that “turning the other cheek” is not a virtue. Upholding the virtue of justice takes more than just not committing an injustice, it is actively taking steps against injustice.

Truth

Three things from which never to be moved: one’s oaths; one’sGods; and the truth. - from the Triads

Truth was clearly valued highly by the ancient Celts. By Truth, I don’t think they meant anything esoteric. Rather, I think they meant it in the ordinary sense of the word: Don’t lie. Don’t be fake or pretentious. Don’t cover up problems.

If there is an “Ultimate Truth,” it is not about a mystical experience one might find in Zen, or a dogmatic belief such as those found in certain monotheistic religions, but rather about logic and reason. The Druids were students, not only of esoteric and magical arts, but of science, math, and logic as well. Logic is the method by which one truth can lead us to another. Reason was often held up as the highest capacity of mankind — the defining capacity. By developing our capacity for logic and reason, we develop the ability to see Truth and discern it from the untrue or that which is not supported by sound reason.

Another aspect of Truth is the virtue of Integrity. Integrity is living truthfully. What you say, what you do, and what you believe are in synch. One with integrity does not hide his faults. Benjamin Franklin once said that we should always act as if the whole world is watching. We should not do anything that we would be ashamed of if it were exposed to the public. This does not mean that we should never keep secrets. For example, many of us keep our religious convictions secret for good reasons that have nothing to do with shame. But even though we may keep our beliefs “under our hats,” we should still live in accordance with those beliefs. That is where integrity lies.

Loyalty

All the water in the ocean could not wash away our kinship. - Gaelic Proverb

Loyalty is recognizing and honoring a duty we have to friends, family, and those around us. The Celts were a tribal people, and thought in terms of their tribe or family rather than individuals. To the Celts, family, and tribe, was everything. We moderns are not used to thinking in terms of “tribes.” I suggest that we should consider our “tribe” as everyone we normally interact with: everyone in your family, everyone in your address book, everyone you know personally, everyone on your block, in your neighborhood, and in your local community.

As Dag Hammarskjol, a United Nations Secretary General once said: “It is more noble to give yourself completely to one individual than to labor diligently for the salvation of the masses.” We tend to think that the people who make sacrifices to “save the world” should be our heroes. It is far better, though, to devote yourself to your spouse, your child, your parents. It is a service that will go by unnoticed in this world obsessed with the “big story,” but the truly noble of heart doesn’t crave recognition for doing what is right. Helping “the masses” spreads yourself thin. It doesn’t give much to the people that should matter the most to you.

We exhibit the virtue of Loyalty by being of benefit to our tribe. We benefit our tribe by working productively, educating and nurturing our children, being active in local government, and obeying the law. We help those in need in our community. We get to know our neighbors and let them know they can rely on us when needed. We respect our elders, and we nurture our children. We pull our own weight in the community and insist that others do as well.

Strength

Be strong and fear not, for by strength and justice kings shouldrule. - Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitionsof Ireland

On one level, Strength refers to our physical health and well-being. A balanced approach to living well must include nourishment for the mind, the body and the spirit. Physical fitness was very important to the ancient Celts, to the point that one could be fined for being in poor condition. A king could not rule unless he was “whole.” That is, he had to be in sound health — no missing limbs or the like. Today, our survival does not rely as much on our physical condition, but it is a factor. When one is physically fit, one has more energy to do common daily tasks without tiring as easily, can handle stress better, is less likely to become ill, and is more capable of handling emergency situations.

On another level, Strength refers to all of the resources at our command that can be used to affect the world. Physical strength is just one of these resources. Financial strength is another. We develop financial strength by saving money, reducing debt, and living frugally. Financial strength allows us to better provide for our family and tribe in times of need. We should seek to develop all of our Strengths so that we can affect the world as virtue dictates we must. Living by the virtues does little good without the power to affect the world around us.

Will

Theonly remedy for hardship is to harden to it. -Gaelic Proverb

Will is the personal drive to achieve a goal. It is perseverance in overcoming difficulties. Socrates thought that the reason people failed to do good was out of error, because they didn’t properly understand the Good. But Aristotle chalked it up to the will. In his view, people know what is good or bad, many just don’t have the will to overcome vice and pursue virtue.

The path of virtue is a difficult one. It is demanding. It requires a constant effort and diligence that is difficult to maintain for most people. By developing our Will and holding Will itself as an esteemed virtue, we are fostering the growth of the other virtues. Without Will to give them life, the other virtues wilt into nothingness.

It should also be said that the Celts were a passionate people. They felt strongly. They were quick to anger and quick to love, but they were not ruled by their feelings. It is the virtue of Will that allows you to feel and experience life with all of your heart, but not be swept away by your emotions.

Memory

Three things that make a bard: Playing of the harp, Knowledge ofancient lore, Poetic power. - from the Triads

When we speak of memory, we speak of two related values. First is the individual’s capacity to remember facts. Second is the “tribal” memory, the lore of our ancestors, our history. To the ancient Druids, memory was a very important faculty. While they were literate, they did not believe in writing down their teachings. I think they believed there were some things too important to be written down. Things that, if they were important enough to you, you would devote to memory. They exercised their memory, practiced mnemonic devices, and mastered incredibly large bodies of knowledge. It is a virtue, then, to master knowledge that is good to have — to study and memorize great poetry, important history, and maxims of wisdom such as the Triads. Truly, knowledge is power. The Druids understood this and sought to master as much knowledge as possible.

The virtue of Memory includes serving the role of “tribal” memory by passing our knowledge and wisdom to others: to our children and to those willing to learn and use what they learn wisely. We should learn about our ancestors and pass that knowledge to our children. It is in this way our tribes carry on their traditions and remember “who they are.” We should study and transmit our history, for without knowledge of history, we are trapped in a societal amnesia. We can’t understand our world today without understanding what happened in the past.

Vision

‘What is your name?’ said Medb to the maiden.
‘Fedelm, the prophetess of Connaught, is my name,’ said the maiden.
‘Whence do you come?’ said Medb.
‘From Scotland, after learning the art of prophecy’, said the maiden.
‘Have you the light of foresight?’ said Medb.
‘Yes, indeed,’ said the maiden.
‘Look for me how it will be with my hosting,’ said Medb.
Then the maiden looked for it; and Medb said: ‘O Fedelm the prophetess, how seest thou the host?’
Fedelm answered and said: ‘I see very red, I see red.’
-The Cattle Raid of Cooley

Vision embraces the concepts of foresight, wisdom, and intuitive insight. It is the power of divination. It is the wisdom of considering the long term implications of our actions. It is the light of inspiration which is the seed of our greatest achievements.

There are two sources of wisdom and foresight. One is in the realm of logic and reason, using inductive reasoning and experience to draw logical forecasts of the future. The other is the “magic” of our intuitive powers, lateral thinking, and divination. The druids studied both of these means, and it is the combination of the two that allowed them to give wise counsel.

Whether we look into the future through divination and supernatural means, or through the powers of inductive reasoning and lateral thinking, the virtue of vision is allowing ourselves to see beyond the ordinary and tap into a deeper wisdom. As the light of inspiration, it is the power beyond forecasting what is probable — it is seeing what greatness is possible. Those gifted with this virtue truly are Visionaries.

Piety

There are three whose full reward can never be given to them:parents, a good teacher, and the Gods. - from the Triads

Piety is the virtue of maintaining our relationship with the divine. It is our spirituality. This virtue is probably the most open to interpretation because our understanding of spirituality and divinity differs greatly from individual to individual. Piety is about what we do and how we act. It is not about what we think or believe. True piety doesn’t require absolute faith or belief. You can question and doubt, and you should. What matters is whether you do the things you should to develop yourself spiritually. As mentioned before, the ancients tended to see everything in terms of an exchange. Their relationships with the gods and spirits were no less. The gods and ancestors offer us protection, guidance, and comfort. In return, we should offer them praise and remembrance, and keep whatever commitments we may have to them.

However we choose to envision the divine, it is important to serve that vision faithfully. If we see the divine in Nature, then we should treat nature with respect and seek to commune with Her frequently. Piety includes taking the steps needed to foster our own spirituality. Maintaining a journal, meditating regularly, and making offerings to the gods, if these fit your beliefs, can all be seen as aspects of piety.

Courage

The man who finds death each day is the man who lives best.- Gaelic Proverb

Courage is the virtue of doing what one must in the face of fear. We fear death, loss, humiliation or physical pain, but we must not allow our fears to rule us. We must accept that there is risk in what we do. We must accept that death will find us some day and approach it with dignity. As William Wallace once said: “Every man dies. Not every man really lives.”

Aristotle gives us useful guidance concerning bravery. He teaches that bravery is the mean between the extremes of rashness and cowardice. Thus, being foolhardy and rash is as much of a vice as cowardliness. One should not throw away ones life for no tangible benefit in a fight that cannot be won.

Courage may be best developed by diligent improvement in the other virtues. One who lives piously, puts the needs of their loved ones ahead of their own, and develops their will and love of justice would tend to be more courageous than others.

Fertility

The three most beautiful sights: a potato garden in bloom, a ship in sail, a woman after the birth of her child.- from the Triads

Fertility celebrates the birth of new life in all of its forms. It also concerns the creativity and industry that bears for us beautiful fruit: the arts, music, poetry, food, shelter, and clothing to name just a few. The creative genius of our ancient ancestors can easily be seen to this day: the Roman aqueducts, the Parthenon, the Pyramids, the plays of Euripides, the sagas of Homer, Stonehenge. The process of creativity is an exercise of one of our truly “god-like” powers: the power to bring forth into existence something that was not there before. We celebrate and acknowledge the importance of fertility by feasting in the autumn on a bountiful harvest or frolicking in the clover in the spring; by reading great works of poetry and trying our hand at making maybe not-so-great poetry. It is a respect and nurturing of inspiration, creativity, and passion which makes it possible to accomplish truly great things.

Magnanimity

Be more apt to give than to deny, and follow after gentleness, O son of Luga. - Celtic Myths and Legends

Magnanimity is a generosity and greatness of spirit, and considered by Aristotle to be one of the most important virtues. It is helping others in need with open arms. It is showing true hospitality by being a good host and a gracious guest. It is treating others with respect and basic human dignity.

Magnanimity involves giving to others liberally, but care should be taken in giving the proper amount and for proper causes. It is not fitting to be generous to those persons or causes that are not deserving. As Aristotle put it: “Virtuous actions are noble and done for the sake of the noble. Therefore the liberal man, like other virtuous men, will give for the sake of the noble, and rightly; for he will give to the right people, the right amounts, and at the right time, with all the other qualifications that accompany right giving.” Magnanimity, then, is hospitality and generous giving to the worthy.

Hospitality is more than merely giving freely. It is about making guests feel welcome, and about accepting others openly into our care. It is by this virtue that the caring boundaries of tribal consciousness are extended to others, even if complete strangers, and treating them as part of our family.

Application of the Virtues in Everyday Life

At first, I intended to set out a hierarchal system of virtues. This is the reason that Moderation was listed first as I consider it the most important in guiding our understanding of the others. It seemed to me that one could better guide ones actions by knowing which virtue to chose if there were a conflict between two or more. Now I am not sure that such a system is worthwhile for a few reasons.

First, the importance of a particular virtue would depend greatly on your role in society. Consider what is known as the ‘tri-partite’ model of Indo-European society. There are considered to be three ‘classes’ in the Celtic culture: the scholars, the warriors, and the producers. A scholar’s role would require a focus on different virtues than a producer or a warrior. Some absolute hierarchy just couldn’t work.

The second reason that I think it is unnecessary to develop a hierarchy of the virtues is that it is not useful to the way the virtues should be applied. It is not necessarily a good thing to try to analyze our every action to see how ‘virtuous’ it is. A hierarchical system would help with that kind of minute to minute application, but by doing so, we risk missing the big picture.

Lastly, we should look towards perfecting all of the virtues and considering the course of action that would be most in keeping with the virtues taken as a whole. No system of mathematical formulae or rigid rules of precedence are going to help. It is simply not possible to categorically state what is the most virtuous possible action in every possible given circumstance.

We should set aside some time regularly to take inventory of our lives and see what changes we can make to live more in accord with the virtues. So, instead of focusing on every little thing we do, we should focus on trying to become a better person in general. Our goal, then, is to develop the virtues within us to the point that proper action is a natural, instinctive act. We are seeking a state of balanced harmony –in harmony with our bodies, our minds, our families, our tribes, and Nature itself. That is the heart of true virtue.